CLASSICAL ERA AND THE THEORY OF THE CITY STATE

 

CHAPTER 1 - CLASSICAL ERA AND THE

THEORY OF THE CITY STATE

This chapter explores the meaning and concern of political thought which is the product of philosophical inquiries on the nature of state and the search for the form of government that will ensure ordered society and accomplishment of the good of life.

The following epochs in the evolution of political theory will be identified as being:  the era of city states in Greco-Roman period; the medieval political philosophies and the controversy between the church and state; the era of national state in Reformation and Renaissance; and the era of reason and Enlightenment.

 

1.1     Notion and evolution of political thought

Political thought has been described as man’s attempt to consciously understand and solve the problems of his group life and organisation. It is the disciplined investigation of political problems which over the centuries attracted inquiries from political philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, St Augustine, Machiavelli, Karl Marx and many others.

Any study on the history of political thought is to understand the various perspectives on collection of writings on the changing theories of the state. It explores the reason of the state, the nature of the state and the place of the individuals within the framework of the state.

The driving force of political thought raised questions on the limits of state power, the relationship between the church and the state, the political obligation and polemics on the contract and relationship between the citizens and the state. Philosophers have often sought to explore the objective realities of a political system but also what should constitute the ideal reality.

 

There are remarkable distinction between the orientation and driving force of political thought in the classical era as represented by the views of Plato and Aristotle when compared to the prevailing ideas in the medieval era, and similarly that of the Renaissance period.

 

The origin of Western political thought has often been traced to the fifth century BC and is often associated with Greece. This is because the Golden Age of Athens is often assumed to be the beginning of Western political civilization. Historically, Greece is the place where Europeans contacted the civilization of ancient Middle East and where they crossed the threshold of science, philosophy and political theory.

 

The history of western political philosophy begins with ancient Greece. Greek politics was characterised by the existence of city states or polis. Aristotle and Plato wrote of the polis as an ideal form of association or organised society of men dwelling in towns in which the whole community’s intellectual, religious, cultural, political and economic needs could be satisfied. The polis, characterised by its self-sufficiency, was seen by Aristotle as the means of developing morality in the human character. It is significant to observe that the Greek polis corresponds appropriately to modern concept of nation, a population of a fixed area that shares a common language, history and culture.

 

The experience of ancient Rome was however different. Here, the King was called Rex. He was the sole ruler and his power was expressed by the word imperium. He was supreme judge, high priest and Commander in chief in war. He appointed all officials. He was expected to work on the counsel of the senate. The Roman Republic corresponds more accurately to modern concept of the state. With the fragmentation of the Roman Empire, the question of authority and the need for order and security led to a long period of struggle between warring feudal lords of Europe.

 

In the classical era, man was conceived as a fraction of the polis and had no other existence outside that framework. The city state was conceived as the genuine platform through which political values could be realised. The polis was conceived as fundamentally self sufficient and ethically a sound foundation for the higher forms of civilisation. It was not a perfect structure but one which needed to be improved or superseded.

A good life was perceived only in terms of participation in the life or activities of the polis. It is in line with this that Plato described the state as the bottom of division of labour in which men of differing capacity satisfy their needs by mutual exchange. Participation in the affairs of the polis was ethically conceived as more important than duties or rights. As Aristotle put it, happiness is activity and he who does nothing cannot do well.

 

The polis was of necessity small and characterized by the love for independence and the all inclusiveness of its activities. Aristotle observed that the polis was self-sufficing as being not too large as to prevent unity of interests and feelings among it members. He maintains that the citizens must be capable of ruling and being ruled. The evolution of democratic thoughts was evident in the Greek city states.

During the centuries that followed the collapse of Rome, the political organisation of Western world was pluralistic. The medieval political system was based on the idea that the Pope and Emperor were jointly responsible for the governance of Christendom. Under this condition, no territorial Prince had the power or authority to maintain an effective rule of law since the secular realm was broken down into a complex network of overlapping jurisdictions.

 

Writing in this epoch, St Aurelius Augustine (354-438 AD) makes a distinction between the order of justice and the order of the state. For him, men as individuals, should ultimately honour the society than the state. In his contribution to political ideas of this era, St. Thomas Aquinas (12251274) supports the church supremacy over the state. He argued that since the true end of man is to attain virtue, the organization through which this is attained must be superior. Consequently, he advocated that secular government should be subordinate to the church because the latter is concerned with the salvation of souls.

 

In the centuries between St. Augustine and St. Aquinas, feudalism emerged as the dominant socioeconomic and political characteristic of the Middle-Ages. The feudal era, which lasted for about ten centuries, is a socio-economic system of land ownership wherein the lords, release out land (manor) to serfs who owe loyalty to the lords. They work on the land and must return a good portion of the produce to the lord. Under the feudal system, man’s socio-economic and political relevance were dependent on his relationship to land.

 

The arrival of Protestantism raised serious questions of political obligation in the evolution of political thought. Lutherans and The Calvinist began to rethink their loyalty to Catholic Princes. The consequence of this was the crystallisation and codification of natural laws and doctrines of state sovereignty. Royal authority accumulated with a decline of papal authority even in Catholic states. The end product was the emergence of absolute monarchy which overturned feudal constitutionalism.

The reformation supported the absolutism of Monarchs and placed all ecclesiastical authority to civil dominance. Reformation scholars such as Hobbes supported absolutism in his book 'Leviathan', which contained his social contract theory. Hobbes philosophy found force in the divine right of kings, giving full credence to royal absolutism.

Machiavelli on his part freed kings from the limitation imposed by public morality. He argues that the state is an end in itself, with its own preservation and advantage and as such was not bound by obligations. For him, the prince should aim at conquering and maintaining state. The writings of Machiavelli and Jean Bodin mark the modern concept of state as the centralising force for stability. In 'The Prince', Machiavelli focused on the durability of government, sweeping all moral consideration and focusing on the strength, the vitality, courage and independence of the ruler. For Bodin, power was not sufficient in itself to create a sovereign. Rules must comply with morality to be durable, and it must have continuity i.e. a means or establishing succession. Reflecting on the role of state sovereignty in the prevention of anarchy, Bodin cautions that for the monarch's power to remain unquestioned it must be in conformity with natural laws and to reflect divine authorisation.

 

The era of reformation and renaissance was succeeded by the era of reason and Enlightenment. This era was characterised by intense scepticism of religious revelations, the increasing spread of literacy and growth of politically conscious, curious and ambitious communities. Intense challenge was placed on all established dogma and this lighted a changing condition of political and social speculations, proliferation of political thoughts and conflicts of explanation or models of social and individual life within the state. Descartes, Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau believed in the power of reason and knowledge to liberate man from restrictive political and religious systems.

 

Montesquieu writing on liberty emphasised that political freedom is to be found in moderate governments where power is not abused. He argued that when the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, there can be no liberty and if the judicial power be not separated from the legislative and executive, the life and liberty of subjects would be exposed to absolute control.

 

A significant feature and prevailing belief of the Enlightenment is the Principle of liberty which emphasised that the state should not infringe on individual’s freedom. This principle was exported from France to Europe and the rest of the world. Many thinkers looked forward to the emergence of politics not characterised by inequalities and injustice. Rousseau advocated that the state should owe its authority to the general will of the governed because the law is none other than the will of the people.

1.2     Plato: his life and times (427-347 BC)

Plato was the son of a wealthy and influential Athenian parent. He began his philosophical life as a student of Socrates. Following the death of his master, Plato travelled to Egypt and Italy where he studied with students of Pythagoras. Upon his return to Athens, he established his school of philosophy called The Academy, where he transmitted the philosophical heritage of Socrates to his students. It is this platform that constitutes the written dialogues on which his enduring reputation rests.

Plato sought to convey the spirit of Socrates’ teaching by presenting reports of the master’s conversational interaction through dialogues which became the source of information on the thoughts of Socrates.

Plato developed, expressed and defended his own conclusions about philosophical issues. The masterpiece of Plato’s dialogues is revealed in the book 'The Republic' in which the conversations of Socrates are about the nature of justice, the virtue of justice, wisdom, courage and moderation. The dialogue concludes with a review of various forms of government, a description of the ideal state in which only the philosopher king are fit to rule and show that justice is better than injustice.

Political debates in Athens centred on economic issues and the polemics between the importance of aristocracy of old and well born families of land owners, and democracy dominated by new interests of foreign trade particularly the development of Athenian power on the sea. The relevance of economic factors in Athenian politics is revealed by the triumph of democracy over aristocracy in the city state.

Socrates exhibited the rational tradition of raw philosophy based on the belief that virtue is knowledge which can be learned and taught. He was engaged in the quest for a general rule of action and transmission through education. The ensuing science in his view can be used to sustain a society of demonstrable excellence. This was the vision philosophers like Plato were concerned with in their search for the best state.

Socrates remained an outspoken critic of the Athenian democracy based on the assumption that any man can assume an office. He was accused of corrupting innocent mind and later executed. The work of Socrates greatly influenced Plato.

Writing on the ideal state or polis, Plato describes it as a just state based on justice which is the manifestation of the human soul. He describes the polis as a natural growth based on the needs and aptitudes of its members.

Plato identified three social classes in the ideal state as the rulers (the Nous), the soldiers (the Thumos) and the workers (the Soma). The Nous refers to the philosopher rulers whose aptitude of wisdom govern and legislate for the city state. They are lovers of wisdom, truth and knowledge. This category of officials should neither marry nor own property.

The Thumos refers to the soldiers or guardians of the rulers. They are concerned with the defence of the polis. This class must be sustained by courage to keep order and control of workers. They must be subject to the philosopher rulers and must possess neither property nor wealth.

The Soma refers to the workers in the society. Members of this class are guided by providing the polis with material subsistence. They are subject to the Nous and Thumos and have no significant political responsibility. Members of this class can get married and own property.

Plato glorified aristocracy as the best form of government where only the best rule for general interests and described others as inferior. Another deviation from the ideal state is oligarchy where wealth and political power is in the hands of the rich and the poor have no share of it. In oligarchy, the process of accumulation is in private hands and this heightens the possibility of perversion of the law.

Plato classified democracy as a deviation from the ideal state as he conceived democracy as originating from the conflict of the minority rich and majority poor where the poor emerged victorious. He described it as a society where there is equality of political opportunity and freedom for every individual member to do as he likes. Such a society for Plato lacks high principles and ideals.

The last degeneration from the ideal state in the views of Plato is tyranny. For him. this society is characterised by the oppressive government by an absolute ruler who administers cruelty without due regards for the rule of law. Plato attributes it to the emphasis of liberty under democracy. In his view, tyranny is the worst form of government.

Plato’s ideal state is based on reason and controlled by the philosopher ruler who must emerge through a rigorous process of education that must involve theoretical and practical orientations. The curriculum must cut across disciplines such as mathematics, politics, psychology and philosophy. Only those who have successfully completed this curriculum and emerged outstanding will take their turn to steer the art of statecraft. It is on this background that Plato is classified as an idealist political philosopher.

Plato remains till date one of the prominent philosophers in political history. His ideas grew to stimulate other inquiries on the nature and processes of the ideal state.

1.3     Aristotle: his life and times (384-322 BC)

Aristotle was the son of court physician to the King of Macedonia, and from this began Aristotle's long association with the Macedonian Court. Having lost his father while still a boy, his guardian sent him at the age of 17 to Athens, the intellectual centre of the world, to complete his education.

He joined the Academy and studied under Plato, attending his lectures for a period of twenty years.

He discovered that Plato’s doctrine became the dominant philosophy in Athens, and established his school which became known as the Lyceum. He devoted time and energies to his teaching and philosophical inquiries.

After his death, Aristotle's writings were held by his student who had succeeded Aristotle in leadership of the School. The works inherited from Aristotle were later taken to Rome after the capture of Athens in 86 BC. They soon attracted the attention of scholars in Rome, and their new edition gave fresh drive to the study of Aristotle and of philosophy in general. This collection is the basis of the works of Aristotle that we have today.

In his work 'Politics' Aristotle defined politics as merely an extension of ethics. He studied the constitutions of over 150 polities and it is on this basis that he is often ascribed as the 'Father of Comparative Politics'.

Works of Aristotle

Aristotle conceives politics as an integral aspect of ethics. He maintains that the moral ideal in political administration is only a different aspect of that which applies to individual happiness. Man is a political animal and a fraction of the city state, and that the city state is the necessary condition for civilised life and the only means for bringing human faculties to their highest form of development.

He contends that humans are by nature social beings, and the possession of rational speech leads us to social union. He conceived the ideal state to be an offshoot from the family which evolved through the village community, to town, nation and subsequently the state. The state is no mere a local union for the prevention of wrong doing, and the convenience of exchange. It is an institution for the protection of goods and property and also a genuine moral organisation for advancing the development of humans.

The family, which exists prior to the state, involves a series of relations between husband and wife, parent and child, master and slave. Aristotle describes slavery as a natural institution and the slave as a piece of live property which has no existence except in relation to his master. In his view, the state is not a homogeneous unity, as Plato believed; but rather a made up of dissimilar elements.

For Aristotle, the classification of constitutions is based on the fact that government may be exercised either for the good of the governed or of the governing, and may be either concentrated in one person or shared by a few or by the many. There are thus three true forms of government: monarchy, aristocracy, and constitutional republic. The perverted forms of these forms of government are tyranny, oligarchy and democracy.

The difference between oligarchy and democracy is not that democracy is a government of the many, and oligarchy of the few but that democracy is the state of the poor, and oligarchy of the rich.  The constitutional republic is regarded as the best attainable form of government, especially as it secures that predominance of a large middle class. With the spread of population, democracy is likely to become the general form of government. In Aristotle’s ideal state, the essential features of citizenship is that it should be a relation between two equals, rendering a voluntary loyalty to a government having lawful rather than despotic authority.

Aristotle affirms that education is of primary importance in a polity because it promotes the progress of the constitution by positively moulding the character and perception of the citizens. Education should achieve the liberal spirit which creates true freemen.

As one of the leading figures in political philosophy, Aristotle's ideas were carried forward by later scholars like Cicero. Aristotle is regarded as the father of comparative politics and his works are held in high esteem among scholars among political scientists. Like Plato, he is an idealist political scholar whose quest was the pursuit for a suitable form of government.   

1.4     Decline of the Polis/city state

This section presents the ideas that emerged towards the end of the era of polis which posed philosophical questions on some aspects upon which the city state was based. These new ideas stimulated curiosity that facilitated the decline of the city states, namely the ideas expressed by the Epicureans, the Cynics  and the Stoics.

Epicurean philosophy

Epicurean philosophy sought to instil in its students, a state of individual self-sufficiency. Its teaching is that a good life consists of the enjoyment of pleasure, an happiness void of pain, worry and anxiety. The wise man will have nothing to do with politics unless circumstances compel him to do so. The Epicurean philosophy remained a caustic critic of all sorts of superstitious practice and beliefs, such as divination and astrology.

For Epicurean philosophers, nature means physics and constitutes the atom from which all things are made. They observed that as far as the individuals are concerned, the desire of every man is for his own individual happiness. They however contend that all men are essentially selfish and seek only their own good. The pursuit of selfish good tends to endanger the good of everyone. To avert this, men enter into tacit agreement with each not to inflict or suffer one another. It flows from this that states and law emerged as a contract to facilitate intercommunication between men and for the sake of obtaining mutual security against the depredations of other men.

Epicurean philosophy reveals an attack on religion and superstition in an era when the significance of religion was steadily on the increase. It has been described as a philosophy of escape as it provided for men a source of peace and consolation.

The Cynics

The Cynics transmitted a protest against the Polis and the social classifications upon which it rested. They argued that the one escape for man lay in the renunciation of everything that man classified as the good of life and the elimination of all social distinctions. Their teachings were targeted at the poor and emphasised contempt for all conventionalities.

The Cynics consisted of individuals who were recruited from the ranks of foreigners and exiles and as philosophers, they adopted a life of poverty on principle.

The essential doctrine is that the wise man ought to be completely self-fulfilled. By implication, it means that only things within his power, his thought and character is sufficient to lead the good of life. The Cynics despised social discrimination characterising the Greco-Roman polities, repudiated social inequalities in the society and sought in philosophy, the entrance into a spiritual realm where such abomination would not exist.

This laid the framework upon which they praised moral character above all other concerns. For them, the rich and poor, Greek and barbarian, citizen and foreigner, freeman and slave, well-born and base-born are considered equal and reduced to the same level of indifference. This world view was a direct attack on all the essential customs that characterised traditional Greek life.

The Stoics

The Stoic movement emerged as a major Athenian school of philosophy around 300 BC, and became more pronounced during the second century after Christ.

One aspect explored by the Stoics was the focus on monarchy which political philosopher like Aristotle gave only an academic focus. This became necessary as monarchy began assuming great relevance in Egypt, Persia and Macedonia and the emerging monarchies tended towards absolutism.

Stoicism transmitted the theory of deification of the King considered divine because he brought harmony to the Kingdom as God brings harmony into the world. The Stoics maintained that the King possessed a divinity which the common man did not share. The authority of the King was assumed to have moral and religious sanctions which his subjects could recognise.

The ethical purpose of Stoicism like other philosophies before it, was designed to produce selfsufficiency and individual well being. Their doctrine offered a positive moral meaning for the idea of a world, state and universal law and became the intellectual backbone for men of political, moral and religious convictions. The Stoics taught self-sufficiency through rigorous training of the will; virtues were resolution, courage and devotion to duty and indifference to the solicitations of pleasure. An essential tenet of the Stoic philosophy emanates from a strong belief in the overruling power of Divine Providence and that life was a duty upon which each man is to play his part well.

While Stoicism tended to diminish the importance of social distinction between individuals, it tended to promote harmony between states. The Stoic movement made a strong appeal on the educated Romans of the era, exercising significant influence in the formative stage of the Roman empire. For instance, the notion of divinity and deification of Kings was adopted by the Roman emperors.

1.5     Marcus Tulius Cicero (106-43 BC)

Marcus Cicero is one of the outstanding statesmen and orators of the Roman empire. He was born in Rome and got influenced by the works of Plato and Aristotle. He defended the Roman constitution against the autocracy of his time.

His political writings formed the main source of information which was introduced to the Roman public. His political works include 'The Republic' and 'The Law' that represent the political thoughts of Rome especially in conservative and aristocratic circles during the last days of the Republic.

Cicero described the moral purpose commending the traditional Roman virtue of public service and the pre-eminence of the statesman’s career, enlightening and harmonising these with a trace of Greek philosophy.

Cicero’s view of Law

Cicero advocates that the natural law of reason is the basis of all other laws and its source is divine wisdom and reason that directs the entire universe. The state and its laws are always subject to the law of God, or the moral and natural law, the higher rule of right which transcends human choice and institutions. It is from this source that the rules of nations which demands righteousness draw their power. The primal law for Cicero is the divine right reason of Supreme Roman god (Jupiter), powerful to establish right and wrong, arguing that good and truth must be eternal since they originate from divine source.

According to Cicero, universal law is the same everywhere and is unchangeably binding on all men irrespective of nationality. This is the true law which is right reason as Cicero defines:

“There is in fact a true law- namely, right reason, which is in accordance with nature, applies to all men, and is unchangeable and eternal.

By its commands this law summons men to the performance of their duties; by its prohibitions it restrains them from doing wrong”

Cicero claims that laws have the inherent quality of truth and justice. The laws of the state must also be just and true to deserve being termed as law and as such must protect the citizens and the state as well as safeguard the tranquillity of human life. For Cicero, it will be sin to seek to alter this law, to repeal any part of it or to attempt to abolish it entirely.

Cicero maintained that a state without laws cannot be considered a true state because law is the greatest good of the state. He further contends that all men are equal in the possession of reason, arguing that all men of all races possess the same capacity for experience and are equally capable of discriminating between right and wrong. He insisted that since all men are subject to one law, they are equal and this is because equality is a moral requirement which suggests that some measure of human dignity and respect be accorded to every individual. Law for Cicero is the natural force, the mind and reason with which the intelligent man measures justice and injustice.

Cicero’s view of State

For Cicero, a state cannot exist permanently unless it depends upon the consciousness of mutual obligation and recognition of rights that bind its citizens together. A state is seen as a moral community, a group of persons who in common possess the state and its laws. Such a community represents an association of a good number of people based on justice and partnership to secure common good. The state is a corporate body whose authority arises from the collective power of the people and political power is nothing but the corporate power of the people.

Cicero’s writings focused on the emergence of a perfect state based on mixed constitutions whose principle evolve from the historical development of Roman constitutions. His logic is drawn from the contribution of by many minds working under diverse circumstances and embodying gradual solutions of various political problems as they emerged. According to Cicero, the Roman constitution was the stable and perfect form of government that has ever evolved. His work had remarkable influence on the nature of law in Romans society.

CONCLUSION

This Chapter explored the meaning and concern of political thought. Some of the findings are that political thought is the product of philosophical inquiries on the nature of State and the search for the form of government that will ensure ordered society and attainment of a good of life. Deliberate efforts were made to identify the prevailing notion of State in each era as well as the political thinkers in each era. In line with this, the following epochs in the evolution of political theory were identified as being the era of city states in Greco-Roman period, the medieval political philosophies which were characterised by the controversy between the Church and State, the era of national state in Reformation and Renaissance and the era of reason and Enlightenment.

The Chapter presented an account of Plato who remains till date one of the prominent philosophers in political history. His ideas grew to stimulate several other inquiries on the nature and processes of the ideal state. Specifically, Plato advocated that the ideal state should be governed by the philosopher King. Such a State must have social classes corresponding to the three components of the human life: Nous, Thumos and Soma. Plato further advocated that the position of the philosopher King must be reached through a rigorous process of education which runs up to the age of fifty.

Aristotle remains one of the leading figures in political philosophy. His ideas were carried forward by later scholars like Cicero. He is regarded as the father of comparative politics and his works are held in high esteem among scholars among political scientists. Like Plato, he is also an idealist political scholar whose inquiry was propelled by the quest for a suitable form of government.  

The emergence of major movements brought ideas that gained increasing currency towards the end of the Greco-Roman era. Prominent among them include the Epicurean philosophy, the Stoic movement and the Cynics. The Epicureans sought to inculcate in their students a sense of individual self-sufficiency. They extolled the pursuit of the good of life characterised by the enjoyment of pleasure and avoidance of pain.

The Cynics on their part propagated a protest against the city-state and the social formation upon which it was based. Consequently, they expressed contempt for all conventionalities. In addition, the Cynics shared the passion of the Epicureans on self sufficiency. The Stoics on their part focused on the monarchy and propagated a deification of the kings because they were assumed to bring harmony to their kingdoms.

Finally, the Chapter conclude by looking at Marcus Cicero and his remarkable influence on the nature of law in Roman society.